History notes of all SA2 chapters CBSE

By Muhammad Sahanawaj (History) Chapter _The Rise of Nationalism in EuropeQ. 1 Define Nation:Ans: A ‘Nation’ has thus been defined as “a body of people who feel themselves to be actually linked together by certain affinities which are so strong and real from them that they can live happily together, are dissatisfied when disunited and cannot tolerate subjection of peoples who do not share theseideas.” Q.2 What do you mean by nationalism?Ans: The words ‘nation’ and ‘nationality’ are derived from the Latin word ‘Natus’ which means a ‘race’. Devotion, love, and patriotic feelings for one’s own nation is called ‘Nationalism’. It is a feeling of politicalconsciousness and unity among the people of a state. Q.3 What is the main contribution of the French Revolution to the world? Ans: The French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of citizens. It proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny. Q.4 What factors led to the rise of Nationalism in Europe? Ans: Factors that led to the rise of Nationalism in Europe. Nationalism provided one of the greatest forces in Europe in the 19th century. The following were responsible for the rise of nationalism in Europe:1) Decline of Feudalism:Feudal lords were a great tumbling bloc in the way of the rise of the nationalfeelings among the people. But many causes led to their fall. Many of them died in mutual warfare. The crusades also impoverished the barons. Without the destruction of nobility the cause of nationalism might have been greatly suffered.2) Weakness of Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages the Church enjoyed and exaltedposition and commanded a great power. But the Renaissance and Reformation movements led to awakening among the people and weakened the authority of the Pope. Consequently, national churches and national states were established in many countries.3) Wars. Sometimes the wars also infused the spirit of nationalism. The Hundred Years War between England and France gave rise to national feeling both in France and England. It roused nationalism among the people of both the countries in the face of a common foe.4) Foreign Rule. In certain countries foreign rule played an important part in the growth of nationalism. The foreign rulers suppressed the people under them cruelly and mercilessly. But all this led to reaction and united the people against the foreign rule and infused the spirit of nationalism in them to free themselves from the foreign yoke.5) Geographical Factor. Geographical factor also helped a lotin the rise of nationalism. National boundaries of a country surely create the feeling of political consciousness and oneness among the people. For example, England is boundedby sea on all the sides. It facilitated the rise of the feelings of unity and nationalism among the English.6) Reaction against Injustice. Reaction against injustice also leads to nationalism. The Vienna Settlement after the Napoleonic Wars tried to suppress the force of revolution and nationalism in Europe. But soon there started a reaction against the arbitrary rule and the people of the subjected countries started national movements for their independence.7) Contribution of Great Writers. Many writers, poets, statesmen, politicians and philosophers, etc. alsomade valuable contribution to the growth of nationalism. Machiavelli had bben rightly called the father ofmodern nationalism. The writings of J. S. Mill, Fitech, Mazzini,Garibaldi etc. went a long way in rousigpolitical consciousness and national spirit among the people. Q.5 Mention the obstacles in the way of the Italian unification.Ans. There were many obstacles in the way of the unification of Italy in the 19th century. Some of the most important are the following:1. Division of Italy into so many States.Italy, which was once the leader of Renaissance, became a very weak and powerless country in the 16th century. So sItaly lost its unity and was parceled out into so many states.These states always used to quarrel among themselves and thus they rendered themselves quite weak.2. Foreign Rule.Foreign invaders took advantage of Italy’s weakness and invaded it over and over again. Especially France and Austria established their rule over a great part of Italy. Napoleon, the French Emperor, had conquered the whole of Italy. Thus the foreign rule was great hurdle in the way of the Italian unification.3. Congress of Vienna.After the downfall of Napolean, the Congress of Vienna once again divided Italy into small states. Lombardy nd Venetia were handed over to Austria while Parma, Tuscany and Modena were handed over to France. Similarly, many old rulers, who were against the spirit of unity, were restored to their respective thrones. Thus the Congress played a great havoc with the task of Italian unification.4. The Pope of Rome.The Pope of Rome was keeping Rome and its adjoining territories under his dominance. He was acting as the head ofall the Christian countries of the world as such he was also proving a great hurdle in the way of the Italian unification. He had kept the foreign forces to throw out any attempt of the patriots to snatch Rome from him.5. Reactionary Rulers. Even those states which were under the dominance of Italian rulers were not at all cooperative with the nationalists. They were reactionaries and were ever ready in curbing the nationalist feelings. These rulers were, thus, also proving a great hurdle in the way of Italian unification.The Nationalist Movement In Indo-ChinaQ.1 Why did the French develop infrastructure in Vietnam?Ans: i) To help transport goods for trade.ii) To move military garrisons.iii) To control the entire region.iv) French business interests wee also pressing the government of Vietnam to develop the infrastructure further.Q.2 What was the cause of the defeat of the French forces in the battle of Dien Bien Phu?Ans: i) The valley where the French garrisons were located was flooded in the monsoon which made it impossible for theFrench forces and thanks to move.ii) The whole area was covered with bushes and jungles making it difficult for the French air force to trace the anti-aircraft guns hidden in the bushes and the jungles.Nationalism In IndiaQ.1 What did the slogan of Swaraj mean? How was the slogan of complete independence different fromit? When and where was the slogan of complete independence adopted?Ans: The slogan of Swaraj meant self-government or the system of government that was prevailing in the elfgovernedBritish colonies. The slogan of Swaraj, however, did not meancomplete independence from allforeign control. Thus, Swaraj and complete independence differed much from each other. Swaraj was self-government but not free from foreign control while complete independence meant freedom from all internal and external control.Q.2 What is the importance of 26th January 1930?Ans: 26 January, 1930. In 1929 at the Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress, under the presidentship of JawaharLal Nehru, the Congress declared the attainment of completeindependence as its chief goal. It was also decided to celebrate 26 January as the Independence Day all over the country. As such on 26th January, 1930, the Independence Day was celebrated all over the country and the Congress flag was hoisted at many places.Q.3 Name the factors that made the national movement a mass movement at the end of the First WorldWar.Ans: The following were main factors that made the national movement a mass movement at the end of the First-World War:1) The arrival of Mohandas Karamchand Gandehi on the political field of India gave an impetus to the national movement and converted it into a mass movement. His method of non-violent resistance, introduction of the spinningwheel and the gospel of the Hindu-Muslim unity drew millionsof people intothe National Movement.2) The war expenditure imposed on India had impoverished the masses so much that they turned against the British Government in large members.3) The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) fell short of the aspirations of the Indians. They furtherangered the Indian masses.4) The defeat and dismemberment of Turkey by the Alies hadturned the Muslim masses against the BritishGovernment.5) The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy had aroused a wave of popular indignation throughoutthe country.Q.4 When was the Muslim League formed? Describe briefly the policies of the Muslim League from1906 to 1940. When was the formation of a separate state ofPakistan adopted as the main aim ofthe Muslim League?Ans: The Muslimi League was formed on 30th December, 1906. Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca and MohammadAli Jinnah were some of its prominent leaders.1) to ask for more and more reforms for the Muslims.2) to protect and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India.3) to promote amongst the Muslims of India, the feelings of loyalty to the British Government for gettingmore and more benefits for the Muslims.4) to keep the Muslim masses away from the Congress.5) to make a demand for the separate electorate and then fora separate state for the Muslims.It was with these objectives in mind that the Muslim League at its Lahore Session in 1940 A.D. for the first time asked for the formation of a separate state of Pakistan.Q.5 Why was the Simon Commission boycotted by the Indians? Give two reasons.Ans: Simon Commission. In November 1927, the British Government appointed the Simon Commission to look into the working of the Act of 1919 or Montague-Chelmsford Reforms and to suggest changes, if necessary. This commission was headed by a London Barrister named Sir John Simon so it is generallyknown as the Simon Commission. This Commission comprising of seven members, arrived in India in1928 A.D. but everywhere it was boycotted by the Indian people.Why was it boycotted by the Indian People?Now a question arises as to why the Simon Commission was boycotted by the Indian people. The reasons for this are not too far to seek:1) Firstly, this Commission did not include any Indian memberin it.2) Secondly, the clauses of this Commission did not contain any hope of ‘Swaraj’ for the Indians.Q.6 What were the reasons for launching Civil Disobedience Movement by the Congress?Ans: In the Lahore Session (Dec. 1929) of the Congress, it was decided to launch the Civil DisobedienceMovement. There were many reasons for launching this movement.1) The British Government has deprived the Indian people of their freedom so it was a crime to submit sucha rule.2) The Congress has declared Complete Independence as its aim in the Lahore Session of 1929 so the mosteffective way of gaining such a freedom was through non-violence by starting the civil disobediencemovement including nonpayment to taxes.3) The British Government has economically exploited the people.4) Not only economically it has exploited the masses politically, culturally and spiritually.The Making of A Global WorldQ.1 What is Rinderpest?Ans: It was a fast spreading disease of cattle plague which had a terrifying impact on people’s livelihood andthe local economy of many countries and especially Africa in the 1890s.Q.2 What was called Hosay?Ans: The Trinidad, a south American country, the riotous Muharram procession or carnival began to be called ‘Hosay’.Q.3 Name some Indian Entrepreneurs who ventured abroad?Ans: (i) Shikaripuri Shroffs and Natthukottan Chetiarrs who financed export agriculture in Central and SouthEast Asia.(ii) Hyderabadi, Sindhi traders who set up their establishments at busy parts world wide.Q.4 Which countries were known as ‘Alies’ in the first World War (1914-1918)?Ans: Britain, France, Russia and U.S. were known as Allies.Q.5. How much was the human loss in the First World War?Ans: About nine million people dead and 20 million injuredQ.6. Who was Henry Ford?Ans: He was well-known pioneer of mass production in the field of car manufacturing.Q.7. What were the Axis Powers in the Second World War?Ans: Mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy.Q.8. What was the human loss in the Second World War?Ans: At least 60 million people are believed to have been killed in this war, directly or indirectly or indirectly,and millions more were injured.Q.9. What is the international monetary system?Ans: It is the system which links national currency with the monetary system. This system was fixed on fixedexchange rates.Q.10. What do you mean by G-77?Ans: It was a Group of 77 developing countries which did not benefit from the fast growth which the Western economies experienced in 1950s.Q.11. What is Globalisation?Ans: Globalisation means integrating our economy with the world economy. As a result, producers of othercountries can sell their goods and services in India and likewise India can also sell its goods and services in other countries. As a result of globalization, the different countries of the world become economically inter-dependant on each other.Q.12. What led to globalization?Ans: (i) Trade(ii) Migration of the people in search of work.(iii) The movement of capitalQ.13. Why did the indentured hired on Contract workers from India become ready to migrate to othercountries?Ans: (i) Cottage industries declined and they got deep in depth.(ii) Land rents rose and they failed to pay them.(iii) Their lands were forcibly cleared for mines and plantations.Q.14. Whed why was the indentured labour migration abolished?Ans: It was abolished in 1921 because India’s nationalist leaders opposed this system as abusive and cruel.Q.15. What were the major items of exports from India between 1812 and 1870?Ans: (i) Raw cotton whose export rose from 5% to 35% between 1812 to 1871.(ii) Opium shipment to China which enabled the British to finance its tea and other export from China.Q.16. What is meant by the Assembly line?Ans: When different parts of a machine like cars and manufactured at different places but are assembled at one single place, such a system is called an assembly line.Q.16 What was the main aim of post-war international economic system?Ans: (i) To preserve economic stability(ii) Full employment in the industrial world.Q.17. Why were the Multi-National Companies (MNCs) attracted towards the developing countries?Ans: (i) Because wages were relatively low in such countries.(ii) It was thought better to invest in these countries for more and more of profits.Q.18. Write short note on – The decision of MNCs to relocateproduction to Asian countries.Ans. MNCs are multinational companies which invest money in different countries. From the late 1970s, they began to shift production operations to low wage Asian countries. Such a thing or decision had a far reaching impact.i) Such a decision increased the job opportunities in the Asiancountries and to a great extent they helped insolving the unemployment problem.ii) These MNCs helped the Asian countries to come out of theformer colonial powers which still held themain controls of economic power in many new independent countries, but which were once under their control.iii) The coming of MNCs in Asian countries enabled the people to enjoy new varieties of things which theybegan to manufacture in bulk in these Asian countries.iv) These multinational companies by their relocation of industry to low-wage countries of Asia stimulated world tradeand capital flow.v) They proved a great help to the true beginning of globalisation.Q.19. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?Ans: The Bretton Woods Agreement was signed between the world powers in July 1944 as a result of theUnited Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, U.S.A. This conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank to preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world.Both these institutions commenced financial operations in 1947 which they are continuing upto this date. Under this system or agreement, the national currencies followed the fixed exchange rates and were pegged to the US dollars. Thissystem ushered an era of unprecedented growth of trade andincomes for the Western industrial nations and Japan. There was also worldwide spread of technology.Q.20. What do you mean by the Silk Routs. What was their importance?Ans: Of all the routes connecting the ancient world, the most important routes were the silk routes. They areknown to have existed even before the Christian era and thrived almost till the fifteenth century. Theseroutes proved a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between different parts of theworld.These ancient routes were called the silk routes because along these routes were mainly carried the silkcargoes from China to different regions of Asia, Europe and Northern Africa. But by the same routes werecarried the Chinese pottery, the Indian spices and textiles. In turn, through these silk routes were carriedprecious metals – gold and silver, from Europe to Asia. Among these routes, the Buddhist preachers, Christian missionaries and later on the Muslim preachers travelled far and wide. Thus these silk routes proved a great source of trade and cultural exchanges.Q.21. What causes led to the decline of the Indian textiles?Ans: Upto the 18th century, the Indian textiles had a wider market all over the world but in the 19th century, it saw a rapid decline from 30% around 1800 to 15% by 1815. By the 1870s, this proportion had dropped to below 3%. What a tragedy !The chief causes for this rapid decline were the following:i) The first was the Industrial Revolution in England as a resultof which England stopped all imports oftextiles from India.ii) Instead it flooded the Indian market with machine-made cloth which was cheaper and more attractive.iii) While heavy taxes were imposed on the export of Indian textiles, the British textiles and their imports into India were left duty free.iv) The East Indian Company bought almost all the cotton from the Indian bazaars and sent to England tofeed the cotton factories there. Almost no or very little cottonas a raw material was left for the Indian textile industries.v) Heavy taxes were imposed on the Indian manufacturing units engaged in textiles so they were made to diea natural death.vi) Even the railways were used to export cotton from India and carry British cloth to the Indian market.Thus the British Government choked the Indian textile industry by their unjust and indiscriminateeconomic policies.Q.22. Explain the causes of Great Depression.Ans: There was a world-wide economic crisis in 1929 which in many countries continued upto 1934. It started in the U.S.A. but soon it engulfed many countries of the world except Russian. Some of its causes were the following.i) The First World War (1914-1918) had given a great boost tothe American industry. But after the warwhen its industries continued producing different articles at the breakneck speed, there was a glut in the market. The exports had fallen and the home market could not absorb all those products. As a result the unsold stock of goods began to pile up in the 1930s. the lack of buyers ruined both the industrialists andthe farming community. Thus USA was caught in a severe economic crisis.ii) As a result the American capitalist stopped all loans to the European countries thus halting all productionthere.iii) The sudden stoppage of American capital caused an unprecedented economic crisis there.iv) The defeat of Germany in the First World War had already ruined her and her industry. So she becameand easy victim of the economic crisis.v) Last but not the least, the labour saving machines and the abundances of agricultural products was alsoresponsible for the economic depression in Europe.Q.23. What were the results of the Economic Crisis of 1929-1934?Ans. The Economic Crisis of 1929-1934 had far reaching effects on U.S.A., Europe and other part of the world.i) The economic depression led to the deterioration of the economic conditions of the capitalist countries ofEurope and the U.S.A.ii) There was a great fall in the industrial production as the demand fro goods of all types also fell, men werelaid off and factories closed. The industrial production in 1933 was only half the 1929 level.iii) Unemployment soared very high and world unemploymentdoubled. There were 5 to 10 crores of unemployed persons inthe world. The number of unemployed persons stood round 14 million in theU.S.A. alone.iv) There was a great fall in the living standard of the people in all parts of the world.v) The economic depression resulted in poverty. Many peoplebecame poor and led a miserable life andbegan to die of hunger.vi) Agricultural prices fell disastrously in many countries.vii) The results of this depression in Italy and Germany were insecurity, unemployment, poverty, frustration,panic and discontentment. This led to the rise of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany. Democratic Party cam to powerin U.S.A. under the leadership of Roosevelt. It adopted the policy of ‘New Deal’ to overcome the evil effects of the economic depression and to provide jobs to the people and to improve thecondition of the workers.viii) The New Deal of Roosevelt in America and the economic nationalism of Britain necessitated statecontrol.The Age of IndustrialisationQ.1 What was the result of the import of Manchester cloth to India?Ans: i) It ruined the cloth industry in India because the Manchester cloth was both cheap showy and durable.ii) The weavers were forced to give up their ancestral profession of cloth weaving and had to work aslabourers in urban areas.Q.2. What was the result of First World War on Indian industries?Ans: The First World War gave a great boost to the Indian industries because of the following reasons:i) The British mills became busy with the production of war materials so all its export to India virtually stopped.ii) Suddenly, Indian mills got clearance to produce different articles for the home market.iii) The Indian factories were called upon to supply various war related materials like jute bags, cloth foruniforms, tents and leather boots for the forces and so on.Q.3. Explain the meaning of term ‘Industrial Revolution’.Ans: The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ stands for those developments and inventions which revolutionized thetechnique and organization of production in the latter half of the 18th century. The Industrial Revolution in face replaced the domestic system, by the new ‘factory system’. In place of animal and manual power, new machines and steam-power were used for producing things. This revolution replaced the cottage industry by the factories, the handwork by the machine-work and the craftsmen and the artists by the capitalist and the factory-owners.Q.4. Why does industrialization affect farming or agriculture?Ans: Effects of Industrialization on Agriculture. With Industrialization grew the demand for raw-materials so rapidly that it forced the cultivators to adopt new methods to ensure more production. New machines were invented for digging the soil, sowing seeds, reaping the harvest and thrashing the corn. New crops were sown and chemical fertilizers were developed for a bumper harvest. Means of irrigation were improved and new breeds of farm cattle were developed. These and several other techniques ensured more food for the growing population and more raw material for the growing industries.Q.5. What conditions are favourable for the continuing growth of industries in India?Ans:1) India abounds in coal and iron-ore deposits, which are essential for the development of industries. We canexport our surplus coal and iron-ore to other countries.2) We have a number of perennial rivers whose perpetual flow of water can be used to generate more electric power.3) We can produce abundant raw-materials as wer have vast agricultural potential in rich and fertile land ofour big country.4) We have a vast network of roads and railways and our shipping industry has also developed considerablyand as such we can transport our goods not only within India but also outside India.5) India itself is a big market with its big population. Besides, Indian goods are in great demand in severalArabian and Asian countries.6) We have good potential in capital as well. Besides, the foreign aid and the foreign investment can alsohelp us in this respect.Q.6. Explain the factors responsible for the Industrial Revolution in England.OrGive reasons why Industrial Revolution started first of all in England.OrExplain those factors which were responsible for the Industrial Revolution in England.Ans: The Industrial Revolution began in England in the later half of the 18th century as favourable conditionsfor such a development were present there:1) Men like Walpole, who was a great economist, encouragedthe foreign trade which brought more andmore wealth to England. The British traders had thus accumulated sufficient capital that was needed toestablish new factories.2) England had plenty of natural resources like iron and coal which are essential for industries.3) England had established many new colonies from where they could easily get cheat raw-materials andwhich could also serve as best markets for finished goods.4) England had developed a large shipping industry which solved their problem of transporting things todistant lands.Q.7. ‘Industrialisation gave birth to Imperialism’. How?OrHow did Industrial Revolution give rise to Capitalism? Elucidate.Ans: There is no exaggeration in calling imperialism as the ill-begotten child of industrialization. Other thingsbeside, industrialization chiefly needs two things. One of them being the constant supply of raw-materialsand the other is that the finished goods be sold at the same speed. The industrialized countries had introduced heavy import duties as protective tariffs to check the import from other countries. Faced withthe problem of finding new markets for their products, the producer nations chose such countries where industrialization had not yet reached. Hence a race for bringing those areas under their effective occupation or effective influence started among the various industrialized nations. As a consequence, Britain, France, Germany and Japan, etc. set up their colonies in Asia, Africa and South America etc.These colonies served their two purposes of being the suppliers of cheap raw materials and an easy market for theirfinished goods. In this way, it can be rightly said that industrialization gave birth to imperialism or carving out of new colonies in other lands.Urbanization and Urban LifeQ.1 Give some chief characteristics of the city.OrDistinguish between cities on the one hand and town and villages on the other.Ans: Chief Characteristics of the Cities and their Distinction from the Towns and Villages:i) Cities, like London and Bombay, were larger on scale as compare to towns and villages like Ur, Nippurand Mohejodaro.ii) Cities could develop only when there was an increase in food supplies that could support a wide range ofnon-food producers. Villages and towns required only food supplies in small quantitites.iii) Cities were often the centre of multifarious activities, like trade and industry, religious institutions,intellectual pursuits and administrative set-up while villages and towns had restricted activities.iv) In cities, a large number of social groups such as merchants, traders, bankers, wholesale traders andbrokers, skilled artisans and various professionals lived while the villages and towns were predominatedby farmers and petty artisans and shopkeepers.Q.2. What were the changes in the kind of work available to women in London between the 19th and the20th century? Explain the factors which led to this change.Ans:1) Women in the later 18th and early 19th centuries were employed in large number in the factories becausethey were available at cheaper rates than men.2) In the 19th century due to technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs andforced to work elsewhere. Some of them began to work as maid servants so much so that their numberrose to quarter of a million as recorded by the Census of 1861.Some other women, who remained within the four walls of their houses, increase the family incomethrough various activities as tailoring, washing, making matchboxes etc.However, there was a change once again in the beginning of the 20th century when women gotemployment in the wartime industries and offices linked with war activities. They happily gave up theirdomestic services.Q.3. Why a number of Bombay films were about the lives of the migrants?Ans: There is no denying the fact that a number of Bombay films were about the lives of the migrants. Therewere reasons for the same.1) Most of the film directors, film producers, playwriter, dramatists and artists were themselves migrants,who came from far off areas to Bombay, so naturally they were familiar and more interested in themesrelating to them. The Kapoors, the Ghais, the Chopras, the Sehgals (Shri K.L. Sehgal, the immortalsinger) were all migrants (from Punjab), without whose help were cannot think of the Bombay dreamworld.2) The migrants, especially the labourers and factory workers,led a very pathetic life which can easily beconverted into a good theme for films. So many films were made on the housing problems of the migrants. The clash of interests between the tenants and owners of the ‘Chawls’ over and over again werewoven into interesting themes by the different Directors and Film Producers.Q.4. Explain what is meant by the Haussmanization of Paris. To what extent would you support oroppose this form of development? Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper to either support oroppose this, giving reasons for your view.Ans: What is meant by Haussmanization of Paris. It simply means the new city of Paris as was designed bythe chief architect of new Paris. At the instance of Napoleon III (a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte), Haussmann built the new city of Paris for continuous 17 years (between 1852 to 1869). He designed straight, broad avenues (or boulavards) and open spaces and transplanted full grown trees. By 1870, aboutone-fifth of the streets of Paris were the creation of Haussmann. In addition night patrols were introduced,bus shelters were built and tap water introduced.Opposition of Haussmanization. Many opposed this form of development. About 350,000 people wereevicted from the centre of Paris. Some said that the city of Paris had been monstrously transformed. Somelamented the passing of an earlier way of life and the development of an upper class culture. Othersbelieved that Haussmann had killed the street and its life to produce and empty boring city.Arguments in Support of Haussmanization. The new Paris city soon got converted into a civic pride asthe new capital became the toast of all Europe. Paris becamethe hub of many new architecture, social andintellectual developments that were very influenced through the 20th century in many parts of the world.Guidelines. The students now to write a letter to the editor of a newspaper to either support or opposethis, giving reasons for their views.Print Culture and The Modern WorldQ.1 Who was Martin Luther?Ans: He was a great religious reformer of Germany, who by his criticism of the Roman Catholic Church laidthe foundation of the Reformation Movement in Europe.Q.2. What is meant by Reformation?Ans: It was a reform movement started in the 16th century to reform the Catholic Religion.Q.3. When did the first printing press come to India?Ans: The printing-press first came to India in Goa with the Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenthcentury.Q.4. What led to the diversification in the use of print in China?Ans: Upto the sixteenth century, the print was used only by the scholars officials but in the 17th century, themerchants along with the reading public also began to use print in their everyday life.Q.5. What was the use of printing press?Ans: (1) It enabled people to produce books at greater speed.(2) The production of books in large number created a new culture of reading and enlarged the number ofreaders.Q.6. Write a short note on – The Gutenburg Press.Ans: Before the invention of the Printing Press, it was very difficult to spread knowledge because the bookswere written by hand and they were also very costly. Knowledge was the privilege of the wealthy people only, but the things changed with the invention of the printing press. The first printing press was set up inGermany by Gutenburg in 1448. He developed metal types for each of the 26 characters of the Romanalphabet and devised a way of moving them around so as to compose different words of the text. Hisnovel press came to be known as the moveable type printing machine and it remained the basic printtechnology for the next 300 years. His press could print 250 sheets on one side per hour.The first book he printed was theBible.Q.7. Who was Martin Luther? What is his contribution to the Protestant Reformation?OrGive reason for the following – Martin Luther was in favour ofprint and spoke out in praise of it.Ans: Martin Luther was a great reformer of Germany. The credit for starting Reformation in Germany goes to him. In 1512 A.D., he went to Rome for pilgrimage. He was stunned to see that the Pope had sunk to thelevel of an Italian Prince and led a very luxurious life. The corrupt practices of the church and immorallife of the clergymen brought a great change in his ideas and he became a staunch opponent of the Pope.When working as a Professor at the University of Wittenburg, he was asked to sell ‘Indulgences’ as ameans of salvation he frankly refused. Instead he wrote downhis objections against the scale ofIndulgences’ in Latin, in the form o f95 statements known as ‘Ninety-Five Theses’ and nailed them on thedoor of the church at Wittenburg and challenged the scholarsto have a debate on them. In these Theses,Luther laid great stress on faith and strongly opposed the sale and purchase of Indulgences as a means ofsalvation. He believed in the infallibility of the Bible and not ofthe Pope.Luther’s Theses were printed and distributed widely in Germany. They created a great excitementeverywhere. Consequently, a National Church was established in Germany and prayers began to be heldin the German language. This fact proved the beginning of the Reformation Movement in Europe.Luther’s translation of the New Testament were sold 5,000 copies within a few weeks and the secondedition appeared within three months. Deeply grateful to printhe remarked, “Printing is the ultimatelygift of God and the greatest one”.Q.8. write a short note on ‘Erasmus’s idea of the printed books’.OrWho was Erasmus? Why is he remembered in history?Ans: Erasmus (1466 – 1533). He was a great reformer of Holland. He was the pioneer of Reformation inHolland. He was the foremost advocate of the new learning and was deadly opposed to corrupt andimmoral life of the pope and the clergymen. He severely condemned evil practices and abuses of thechurch. He was in favour of bringing reforms in the church by peaceful means, but he disliked violentmethods, ‘Pocket Dagger’, ‘Praise of Folly’ and ‘New Testament’ are his famous works. In the ‘Praise ofFolly’ he had denounced the abuses of the church in a very sarcastic manner. He wanted to effect thereforms in the church by a direct appeal to the reason of man. It has been rightly remarked. “The jokes ofErasmus did the Pope more harm than the anger of Luther”. His influence extended to England, France,Germany and Italy also.Erasmus’s words about printing are worth quoting, He says, “To what corner of the world do theynot fly, these swarms of new books? It may be that one here and there contributes something worthknowing, but the very multitude of them is hurtful to scholarship, because it creates a glut, and even ingood things satiety is most harmful…….. (printers) fill the world with books, not just trifling things (suchas I write, perhaps), but stupid, ignorant, slanderous, scandalous, raving, irreligious and seditious books,and the number of them is such that even the valuable publications lose their value”.Q.9. Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bringenlightenment and end despotism?OrWhat is the contribution of print to the spread of knowledge?Ans: Contribution of Print – There is no denying the fact that the invention of print has greatly contributed tothe spread of knowledge. Without this invention, all the progress that we see today was not possible. Thewords of the German reformer Martin Luther in favour of print, and worth quoting. Deeply grateful toprint, he said, ‘Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one.” What better words can be said infavour of print!Author after author, whether educationist, religious and socialand the political giants, sing in favour ofprint:i) Without the introduction and invention of the new print technology, the quicker and cheaperreproduction of texts was not possible.ii) Printing reduced the cost of books as a result books could reach out to wider sections of thesociety otherwise they would have been only the luxury of the elite or the rich people.iii) As a result of the printing technology, the time and labour required to produce each book camedown which resulted in flooding the market, reaching over to ever growing readership.iv) Painting led to the rise of literacy rate in almost all countries of the world in the 17th and 18th andthe subsequent centuries.v) Similarly, the ideas of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the common people.The writings of great thinkers like Thomas Paine, Rousseau, Montesquien, Voltaire completelyrevolutionized the moods of the people and some of them began to think that print culture wouldbring not only enlightenment but also end of despotism.Most of the revolutions of the world, which ended despotism and brought about democrate governmentsin the world were much because of the advancement of the print culture. Without the spread of educationand knowledge, how could such a transformation be possible.Q.10. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.Ans: How Print Culture assisted the Growth of nationalism in India? There is no doubt that the print culture,both Indian press and the liberature, also played a vital part in the growth of nationalism in India. In thenineteenth century, a large quantity of national literature was created which brought about a greatrevolution in the minds of the people and inspired them to fight against British imperialism. The Indianpress also contributed in arousing the national consciousness among the people of India. Newspapers likethe ‘Indian Mirror’. ‘Bombay Samachar.’ ‘The Amrit Bazar Patrika’ ‘The Hindu’. ‘The Kesari’, andseveral others had a great influence on the political life of thiscountry. A continuous pouring in ofnational articles by such great patriots as Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Din Bandhu Mitra, Rabindra NathTagore and Lokmanya Tilak etc, slowly and slowly worked a miracle in rousing political consciousnessamong the Indians and prepare them for the national struggle.

CBSE class 10 solved sample paper for SA2

Muhammad Sahanawaj Q1)Define evolution.Ans-It a slow gradual process which occurs due to cumulative effects of adaptations and helps it to survive in a better way.Q2)How are fossils helpful in developing evolutionary relationships?Ans: Fossils forms a connecting link between groups of organisms.Q3)Cat’s paw ,human hand and horse’s legs-are these organs homologous or analogous? Give reasonAns- They are homologous organs as they are of same origin performing different functions.origin is forearm modified.Q4)Wings of bird and wings of insect-are these organs homologous or analogous?give one suitable season to support your answer.Ans-They are analogous organs as both have developed fromdifferent origin and perform same function of flying.Q5)Give one difference between eyes and eye spot.Which animal possesses eye spots?Ans-eyes are well developed organs helping to form an image, but eye spots just enable the animalto distinguish between day light and darkness.e.g. planaria and euglena possess eye spotsQ6) Give one difference between artificial selection and natural selection.Ans-Artificial selection is that in which man selects the beneficial gene and modifies it according to his requirement whereas in natural selection nature selects the advantageousgene and helps it to multiply.Q7) What is true- humans have evolved from chimpanzees or humans and chimpanzees both have evolved from a common ancestor?Ans- Both have evolved from a common ancestor because both are existing today .man has not replaced chimpanzees.Q8)What is the mechanism behind the expression of a particular trait?explain briefly.Ans - The mechanism behind the expression of trait is the presence of a functional gene.When gene is functional it is capable of producing a hormone or enzyme which helps in expression of that trait.But sometimes genes get altered and become non-functional,then the enzyme is not produced and the trait does not get expressed.Q9) What will happen to the expression of a particular trait if agene get altered?Ans - When gene gets altered the corresponding enzyme is not produced,hence the hormone related to it is not producedand the particular trait does not expressed.there are chances that instead a disease maybe seen due to altered geneQ10)What are various ways by which genes can enter a population?Ans. The various way area) GENE MIGRATION is gene flow which occurs when some members of main population migrate to other areas and may not come back .this is geographical isolation.b) GENETIC DRIFT -is change in gene frequency due to chance or accident and not by natural selection.c) NATURAL SELECTION-is a process in which better quality genes sekected by nature are allowed to multiply.d) MUTATIONS arise suddenly- they are sudden changes in the gene inherited by offsprings for atleast 4-6 generations.Q11) How will new species arise in case:a) Two sub-populations are separated due to a huge mountain in between them?b) A small population of individuals gets drifted away from the main land due to sea?Ans. New species will arise;a) The huge mountain acts as a geographical barrier and the members of the two sub-population will not be able to mate with one another due to this mountain .this will keep mating within the members of their own sub-population and hence two new species will arise.b) when the small population gets drifted away from main land by sea,here also chances are that there may be some kind of gene flow between the partly separated populations,but if the two populations do not meet, chances are that two new species would arise.Q12) Only advantageous variations help in the evolution of anorganism giving rise to a new species.expalin with the help ofan example.Ans.This is because the advantageous variations are selected by nature and allowed to multiply or propogate fast to increase their members.because such variations help an individual to survive in a better manner in changing environment the population increases.this can be explained as underA- EVOLUTION OF EYE which has occurred bit bt bit and not in one step.even the rudimentary eye was advantageous to Planaria or Octopus even though a clear image was not formed as in humans still it gave a fitness advantage.B-EVOLUTION OF WING-earlier feathers were formed to provide warmth to the body,later these feathers helped in flying.Type-II SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 marks)1. What are transgenic organisms? Which property of DNA is used as a tool in genetic engineering?Ans. The organisms that contain a segment of foreign DNA are known as transgenic organisms.The complimentary property of the nucleotides of DNA.is the most powerful tool in genetic engineering.2. Explain how the sex of the child is determined at the time of conception in human beings.Ans. Male human beings have XY sex-chromosomes and female human beings have XX sex-chromosomes. If a sperm carrying x-chromosome fertilizes with the ovum, then sex of the baby will be female. If a sperm carrying y-chromosome fuses with the ovum, the sex of the baby will be male.3. By comparing the similarity of nucleotide sequences in DNA of different kinds of organisms, evolutionary relationships can be established.a) Arrange the following according to their evolutionary closeness (You may use your knowledge of classification also) Cockroach, mango tree, gorilla, fish.b) Whose DNA among the following do you think is most similar to that of humans.Ans. a) cockroach – fish – gorilla b) Gorilla4. Mention the ways by which variant genotypes are produced in organism?Ans. a) gene mutation b) Crossing over c) Hybridization5. In human beings blue eye colour is recessive to brown eye colour . If a brown eyed man has a blue eyed mother then finda) What are the possible genotypes of his father?b) What is the genotype of the man and his mother?Ans. BB , Bb B. Man: Bb, mother: bb6. What are fossils? Of what interest are fossils to the evolutionary biologists?Ans. A fossil is the remnant or impression of an organism that lived in the Remote past. Use of Fossilsa)Phylogeny , the evolutionary history can be reconstructed from the fossils.b) The fossil record has helped in building the broad historicalsequence of biological evolution.SHORT ANSWER QUESTION (3 marks)1. a) Who isolated DNA for the first time from pus cells?b) Why is DNA called polynucleotide?c) Name two purine nitrogenous bases found in a DNA molecule.Ans. a) F.Meishcer, named it nuclein.b)DNA is called polynucleolide because it is a polymer or long chain of nucleolide.c)Purine:- Adenine and Guanine.2. a) Who put forward the double helical model of DNA?b) What are the three chemically essential parts of nucleotides constituting a DNA?Ans. a) Watson and Crick.b) Nucleotide constituting –DNA Nitrogen bases (Purines and Pyrimidines),Pentose sugar(Deoxyribose sugar) and a phosphate molecule.3.Guinea pig having black colour when crossed with guinea pig having same colour produced 80 offspring, out of which 60 were black and 20 were white. Now,find out:a)What is the possible genotype of the guinea pigs?b)Which trait is dominant and which trait is recessive?c)What is this cross called as and what is its phenotypic ratio?Ans.a) Bb x Bb b)Black is dominant and white is recessive.c)Monohybrid cross, phenotypic ratio=3:14.Write a brief account on salient points of Lamarck‘s theory. Who disproved this theory?A. Lamarckism1.The use and disuse of an organ leads to acquiring of change in the features of that organ.2. These changes are inherited by the offspring.3. Favourable variations result in evolution of new species. August Weisman.5. Distinguish between acquired and inherited traits giving one example of each.Ans .Acquired traits1) A trait (or characteristic) of a organism which is ‗not inherited‘ but develops in response to the environment is called an acquired trait.(2) The acquired traits of an organism can not be passed on to its future generations. e.g. low weight‘ of beetle, cut tail‘ of a mouse.Inherited traits1) A trait (or characteristic) of an organism which is caused by a change in its genes (or DNA) is called an inherited trait.2) The inherited traits of an organism are passed on to its future generations. e.g. red colour of beetles, fur coat of guinea pigs.LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS – (5marks)1. a. What is genetics?b. Give the common name of plant on which Mendel performed his experiments.c. What for did Mendel use the term factors and what are these factors called now.d. What are genes? Where are the genes located?Ans. A. The branch of biology that deals with the study of heredity and variation.b. Garden pea – Pisum sativum.c. The units of inheritance of characters. These factors are now called as genes.d.Gene is a hereditary unit, a segment of DNA. It is located ona chromosome at a particular locus or position.

Heridity and evolution notes SA2 class10

Class 10 Heredity and Evolution – Gist of lessonGenetics :Branch of science that deals with Heredity and variation.Heredity :It means the transmission of features / characters/ traits from one generation to the next generation.Variation :The differences among the individuals of a species/population are called variations.Mendel and His Work on InheritanceGregor Johann Mendel started his experiments on plant breeding and hybridization. He proposed the laws of inheritance in living organisms. Mendel was known as Father of GeneticsPlant selected by Mendel :Pisum sativum(garden pea). Mendel used a number of contrasting characters for garden pea.Following are the seven pairs of contrasting characters in Garden Pea(TABLE OF CONTRASTING CHARACTERS. SEVEN PARTS)CHARACTERDOMINANT TRAITRECESSIVE TRAITFlower colourVioletWhiteFlower positionAxialTerminalSeed colourYellowGreenSeed shapeRoundWrinkledPod shapeInflatedConstrictedPod colourGreenYellowHeight of plantTallDwarf/ShortMendels Experiments :Mendel conducted a series of experiments in which he crossed the pollinated plants to study one character (at a time)Monohybrid Cross :Cross between two pea plants with one pair of contrasting characters is called a monohybrid cross. Example :Cross between a tall and a draft plant (short).Observations of Monohybrid Cross1. All F1 progeny were tall (no medium height plant (half way characteristic)2. F2 progeny ¼ were short, ¾ were tall3. Phenotypic ratio F2 – 3:1 (3 tall : 1 short)Genotypic ratio F2 – 1 : 2 :1 = TT : Tt : ttConclusions1. TT and Tt both are tall plants while tt is a short plant.2. A single copy of T is enough to make the plant tall, while both copies have to be ‘t’ for the plant to be short.3. Characters/Traits like 'T' are called dominant trait (because it express itself) and ‘t’ are recessive trait (because it remains suppressed)Dihybrid Cross :A cross macle between two plants having two pairs of contrasting characters is called dihybrid cross.PARENT GENERATION--->ROUND GREEN SEEDS xWRINKLEDYELLOW SEEDSPhenotypic RatioObservations1. WhenRRyywas crossed with rrYY in F1 generation all wereRr Yy round and yellow seeds.2. Self pollination of F1 plants gave parental phenotype and two mixtures (recombinants round yellow & wrinkled green) seeds plants in the ratio of 9:3:3:1Conclusions1. Round and yellow seeds areDOMINANTcharacters2. Occurrence of new phenotypic combinations show that genes for round and yellow seeds areinherited independentlyof each otherSEX DETERMINATION :Phenomenon of decision or determination of sex of an offspringFACTORS Responsible for Sex Determination1. Environmental : In some animals the temperature at which the fertilised eggs are kept decides the gender. eg. in Turtle 2.Genetic : In some animals like humans gender or individual is determined by a pair of chromosome called sex chromosome XX – Female and XY – MaleThis shows that half the children will be boys and half will be girls. All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother regardless whether they are boys or girls. Thus sex ofchildren will be determined by what they inherit from their father, and not from their mother.EVOLUTIONEvaluation is the sequence of gradual changes which takes place in the primitive organisms, over millions of years, in which new species are produced.Situation-IGroup of red beetlesColour variation arises during reproductionAll beetles red except one that is greenOne beetle Green ReproductionCrows feed on red beetleProgeny beetles greenNo. of beetles reducesCrow could not feed on green beetles as they got camouflaged in green bushesNumber of green beetles increasesSituation 1 :Green beetles got the survival advantage or they were naturally selected as they were not visible in green bushes. This natural selection is exerted by crows resulting inadaptations in the beetles to fit better in their environmentSituation 2 :Blue beetles did not get survivals advantage. Elephant suddenly caused major havoc in beetle population otherwise their number would have been considerably large.From this we can conclude that accidents can change the frequency of some genes even if they do not get survival advantage: This is called genetic drift and it leads to variation.Characters or traits of an organism are controlled by the genesA Section of DNA (cellular)GeneProvides informationFor synthesis of ProteinsProteins controls a characterExample :Gene Tresponsible for synthesis of efficient enzyme (Protein)More productionof growth hormoneResults in Tall PlantsGene tresponsible for synthesis of less efficient enzymeLess productionof growth hormoneResults in short PlantsGenetic drift. It leads to diversity without any adaptationSITUATION-IIIGroup of red beetlesHabitat of beetles (bushes)Suffer from plant diseaseAverage weight of beetlesdecreases due to poor nourishmentNumber of beetles kept on reducingLater plant disease gets eliminatedNumber and average weight of the beetles increases againSituation 3 :No genetic change has occurred in the population of beetle. The population gets affected for a shortduration only due to environmental changes.ACQUIRED AND INHERITED TRAITSAcquired TraitsInherited Traits1. These are the traits which are developed in an individual due to special conditions1. These are the traits which are passed from one generation to the next.2. They cannot be transferred to the progeny2. They get transferred to the progeny.3. They cannot direct evolution eg. Low weight of starving beetles.3. They are helpful in evolution. eg. Colour of eyes and hairSPECIATIONMicro evolution : It is the evolution which is on a small scale. eg. change in body colour of beetles.The process by which new species develop from the existing species is known as speciation.Speciation : it is the process of formation of new species.Species : A group of similar individuals within a population that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.Geneflow : It is exchange of genetic material by interbreedingbetween populations of same species or individualsWAYS BY WHICH SPECIATION TAKES PLACESpeciation takes place when variation is combined with geographical isolation.Gene flow :occurs between population that are partly but not completely separatedGENETIC DRIFTIt is the random change in the frequency of alleles (gene pair) in a population over successive generations.*Natural Selection :The process by which nature selects and consolidate those organisms which are more suitably adapted and possesses favorable variationsGenetic drift takes place due to(a) Severe changes in the DNA (b) Change in number of chromosomesEvolution and classificationBoth evolution and classification are interlinked.1. Classification of species is reflection of their evolutionary relationship.2. The more characteristic two species have in common the more closely they are related.3. The more closely they are related, the more recently they have a common ancestor.4. Similarities among organisms allow us to group them together and to study their characteristic.TRACING EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS(Evidences of Evolution)I. Homologous Organs :(Morphological and anatomical evidences. These are the organs that have same basic structural plan and origin but different functions.Homologous organs provides evidence for evolution by telling us that they are derived from the same ancestor.Example :Forelimb of Horse(Running)Same basic structural but different functions perform.Winds of bat(flying) plan,Paw of a cat(walk/scratch/attack)II. Analogous Organs :These are the organs that have different origin and structural plan but same function example :Example :Analogous organs provide mechanism for evolution.Wings of bat elongated fingers with skin foldsWings of bird Feathery covering along the armDifferent basic structure, but perform similar function i.e., flightIII. Fossils :(Palaeontological evidences) : The remains and relics of dead organisms of the past.FOSSILS ARE PRESERVED TRACES OF LIVING ORGANISMSFossil Archaeopteryx possess features of reptiles as well as birds. This suggests that birds have evolved from reptiles.Examples of FossilsAMMONITE - Fossil-invertebrateTRILOBITE - Fossil-invertebrateKNIGHTIA - Fossil-fishRAJASAURUS - Fossil dinosaur skullAGE OF THE FOSSILSI. Deeper the fossil, older it is.II. Detecting the ratios of difference of the same element in the fossil material i.e.Radio-carbon dating[C-(14) dating)Evolution by stages :Evolution takes place in stages ie bit by bit over generations.I. Fitness advantageEvolution of EyesEvolution of complex organs is not sudden it occurs due to minor changes in DNA, however takes place bit by bit over generations.Flat worm has rudimentary eyesInsects have compound eyesenough to give fitness advantageHumans have binocular eyesII. Functional AdvantageEvolutions of feathers :Feathers provide insulation in cold weather but later they might become useful for flight.Example :Dinosaurs had feathers, but could not fly using feathers. Birds seem to have later adapted the feathers to flight.Evolution by Artificial Selection :Humans have been a powerful agent in modifying wild species to suit their own requirement throughout ages by using artificial selection. eg(i) From wild cabbage many varieties like broccoli, cauliflower, red cabbage, kale, cabbage and kohlrabi were obtained by artificial selection.(ii) Wheat (many varieties obtained due to artificial selection).Molecular PhylogenyÞIt is based on the idea that changes in DNA during reproduction are the basic events in evolutionÞOrganisms which are more distantly related will accumulategreater differences in their DNA

The story of my life summry SA2 class10

By Muhammad Sahanawaj

The Story of my Life: Summary (Chapter 15-22) 

Chapter 15 

Helen spent the next summer and winter with her family in Alabama. Staying at home made her forget about the controversy over ‘The Frost King’. Helen was scared that people would discover that the ideas were not her own. To help her, Helen’s teacher Anne Sullivan encouraged her to write the story of her own life in the form of an assignment. Helen was 12 years old at that time and used to write for a magazine called Youth's Companion. Her visit to President Cleveland’s inauguration, to Niagara Falls, and to the World’s fair were the big events of 1893. Although she couldn’t see the Falls, Helen said that their power had a big impact on her. Helen claimed that beauty and music were like goodness and love to her.

Chapter 16 

By the time Helen was 13, she could fingerspell and read in raised print and Braille. He could not only speak in English, but also a little bit of French. Helen began her formal schooling and preparation for college in for college by taking Latin and Math lessons.  She initially liked Math more, but later grew to love Latin too.

Anne Sullivan taught Helen based on her interests until now. She used to teach her what she wanted to know and provided her with experiences. However, when preparing for college, Helen worked systematically and things that did not gratify her immediately. She had to achieve her goal of receiving formal education.  

Chapter 17 

In October 1894, Helen went to the Wright-Humason School for the Deaf in New York City for two years. Miss Sullivan accompanied her and attended the school as her interpreter. Helen studied arithmetic, physical geography, French and German at the school. The school was chosen because it was the best for continuing the development of Helen’s speech and lip reading skills. Helen and her teachers were disappointed as her lip-reading and speech skills were not what they had hoped and expected to be despite the practice. Helen did not like Math. In spite of the setbacks, her admiration for geography and languages helped her form fond memories of her stay in New York.  The only thing she liked about New York was Central Park. The daily walks in Central park and closeness to nature were the two things that helped her get closer to her former life in her country.

Chapter 18 

In 1896, Helen went to Cambridge school for Young Ladies to be prepared to get into Radcliffe. It was her first experience of attending classes with girls who could hear and see. At the Cambridge School too, Miss Sullivan was to attend the classes with Helen as her interpreter. The teachers had never taught someone like Helen. The subjects that Helen learnt in the first year were English history, English literature, German, Latin, arithmetic, Latin composition and occasional themes. Miss Sullivan tried her best to spell into Helen’s hands everything that was in the books. Although Helen’s sponsors in London and Philadelphia worked to have the textbooks embossed in raised print for Helen to read, the books were not ready in time to suit Helen’s purpose. The Principal and the German teacher learnt to fingerspell so that Miss Sullivan could take a break. Although they were not as fluent as Miss Sullivan, Principal Gilman took over teaching Helen English Literature for the remaining part of the year.  

Chapter 19 Summary

Helen looked forward to her second year at Gilman’s school. However, she was confronted with unexpected difficulties that year which caused her a great deal of frustration.  She had to study mathematics without the needed tools. The classes were larger and it was not possible for the Cambridge teachers to give her special instructions. Anne Sullivan had to read all the books to her. Helen had to wait in order to buy a Braille writer so that she could do her algebra, geometry and physics.

When the embossed books and the other apparatus arrived, Helen’s difficulties began to disappear and she began to study with confidence. However, Mr. Gilman thought that Helen was overworked and was breaking down. He insisted that I was overworked, and that I should remain at his school three years longer. He made changes in her studies. A difference of opinion between Mr. Gilman and Miss Sullivan resulted in Helen’s mother withdrawing Helen and Mildred from the Cambridge school. Helen went on to continue her studies under a tutor. Helen found it easier to study with a tutor than receive instructions in class.

When Helen took her exam in June 1899, she faced many difficulties, as the administrative board of Radcliffe did not realize how difficult they were making her examinations. They did not understand the peculiar difficulties Helen had to go through. However, Helen, with her grit and determination, overcame them all.                  

Chapter 20 

Helen Keller took the entrance exams for Radcliffe College in 1899 just after her 19th birthday. She became the first blind-deaf college student in the fall of 1900.  She had thought of college romantically, that it would be a time to reflect and think about her subjects. However, her college life was different from her fellow students. She had to use her hands to listen rather than take down notes. The speed at which the lectures took place made it difficult for Keller to understand and remember everything that was taught.

Ms. Keller and Ms. Sullivan worked hard at Radcliffe College. Ms. Sullivan attended all of Ms. Keller's classes and helped with reading. Radcliffe was not prepared for deaf or blind students at that time. Many of the other students had never met a deaf and blind person. Although she enjoyed college, Ms. Keller thought that schedules of the students were too hectic and gave no time to sit and think. She also wrote, "we should take our education as we would take a walk in the country, leisurely, our minds hospitably open to impressions of every sort."

Chapter 21 

In this chapter, Helen Keller goes back to tell readers about her initial experiences with reading. Helen first read when I was seven years old. That was her first connected story in May 1887. There were only a few books in raised print, which Helen read repeatedly until a time when the words were so worn and pressed that she could scarcely make them out.

During her visit to Boston, she was allowed to spend a part of each day at the Institution library, and here she used to wander from bookcase to bookcase and take down whatever her “fingers lighted upon”. When she discovered the book ‘Little Lord Fauntleroy,’ Miss Sullivan read it to her and the book became Helen’s “sweet and gentle companion” throughout her childhood.

From there she read many books and she loved "Little Women" because it gave her a sense of kinship with girls and boys who could see and hear. She also loved ‘The Jungle Book’ and ‘Wild ‘Animals I Have Known’ as she felt a genuine interest in the animals themselves, they being “real animals and not caricatures of men”.  She was fascinated by Greek literature and it was Iliad that made Greece her “paradise”. According to her, great poetry did not need an interpreter but a responsive heart. Macbeth and King Lear impressed her most among Shakespeare’s works. She read the Bible for years “with an ever-broadening sense of joy and inspiration”. She said she loved it as she loved no other book.

Helen also expresses her love for history apart from her love for literature. The first book that gave her a real sense of the value of history was Swinton's "World's History," which she received on her thirteenth birthday. Among the French writers, she liked Molière and Racine best. Literature was Helen’s Utopia, where she faced no barrier of the senses. The things that she had learned and the things that were taught to her seemed of ridiculously little importance compared with their "large loves and heavenly charities."

Chapter 22 

Books and reading were not the only things that Helen enjoyed. When Helen was not reading, she enjoyed outdoor activities. She liked swimming, canoeing, and sailing. She also loved trees and used to feel close to them so much so that she believed she could hear their sap flow and see the sun shining on the leaves. Helen felt that each one of us had the ability to understand the impressions and the emotions experienced by mankind from the beginning. Blindness or deafness could not rob us of our memory in the subconscious about the green earth. This, she termed as the sixth sense which can see, feel and hear.   

Carbon and its compound class10 arihant notes

Carbon and its compound class10 allen notes

Science Class 10 Notes for Carbon and its Compounds

1. Bonding in Carbon

Carbon form covalent bonds.

Formation of covalent bond : Covalent bond formation involves sharing of electrons between bonding atoms which may be either same or different.

Covalency : The number of electrons contributed by an atom for sharing is known as its covalency.

Characteristics of covalent compounds :

(i) These compounds are molecular in nature (i.e. they exist as single molecules)

(ii) These are insoluble in water and soluble in benzene, kerosene and petrol etc.

(iii) These compounds are poor conductor of electricity.

2. Allotropy in Carbon

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The property due to which an element exists in two or more forms, which differ in their physical and some ofthe chemical properties is known as “Allotropy” and the various forms are called “Allotropes”.

Carbon exists in two allotropic form (i) crystalline (ii) amorphous. The crystalline forms are diamond and graphite whereas the amorphous forms are coal, charcoal, lamp black etc.
Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one to be identified was C-60, which has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football.
3. Unique Nature of Carbon

Catenation : The property of elements to form long chains or rings by self linking of their own atoms- through covalent bonds is called catenation. The extent of catenation depends upon the strength of the bonds between the atoms involved in catenation.

4. Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

In saturated compounds the valencies of all the carbon atoms are satisfied by single bonds between them.

While in the unsaturated compounds, the valencies of all the carbon atoms are not satisfied by single bonds, thus in order to satisfy their valencies, they form double or triple bond between the carbon atoms.

5. Straight chain compounds : The compounds which contain straight chain of carbon atoms e.g. normal butane (C4H10), normal pentane (5H12) etc.

6. Branched chain compounds : Those compounds which are branched.

e.g. iso-butane (C4H10), isopentane (C5H12), neopentane (C5H12) etc.

7. Closed chain compounds or Ring compounds :

Cyclic compounds are called closed chain or ring compounds e.g. cyclohexane (C6H12), cyclopentane (C5H10), cyclobutane (C4H8), cyclopropane (C3H6) etc.

8. Hydrocarbons

All those compounds which contain just carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.

9. Functional Group

The atom or group of atoms which determine the properties of a compound is known as functional group. e.g. —OH (alcohol), —CHO (aldehyde), > C = C < (alkene), — C C — (alkyne) etc.

10. Homologous Series

A series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.

e.g. CH3C1 and C2H5C1 differ by a —CH2 unit.

11. Nomenclature

Chemists developed a set of rules, for naming organic compounds based on their structures which is known as IUPAC rules.

The IUPAC name of an organic compounds consists of three parts.

Prefix – word root – Suffix

Word Root : A word root indicates the nature of basic carbon skeleton.

In case a functional group is present, it is indicated in the name of the compound with either as a prefix or as a suffix.

While adding the suffix to the word root the terminal ‘e’ of carbon chain is removed If the carbon chain is unsaturated then the final `ane’ in the name of the carbon chain is substituted by ‘en& or yne’ respectively for double and triple bonds.


12. Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds :

(i) Combustion : Carbon compound undergo combustion reaction to produce CO2 and H20 with the evolution of heat and light.

CH4 +O2 > CO2 + 2O + heat and light

(ii) Oxidation :


The substance which are used for oxidation are known as oxidising agent.

e.g alkaline KMnO4

Heridity and Evolution nòtes

Heredity and Evolution Notes

For Class 10 Formulas Download PDF


1. The transmission of characters from parent to their off springs is known as heredity.

The study of heredity and variations is known as genetics.

♦ Clones are those organisms which are the carbon copies of one another.

♦ Variation in sexually reproducing organisms are caused due to the following factors like environment, crossing over and recombination of genes and mutation.

♦ The first study of inheritance was done by Gregor Mendel on garden pea.

♦ Paired condition of chromosomes is known as diploid.

♦ Unpaired condition of chromosomes is known as haploid.

♦ DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid), RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid) is the genetic material in all organisms.

2. Mendel’s laws of inheritance are

(i) Law of Dominance
(ii) Law of Segregation (Law of purjty of gametes)
(iii) Law of Independent Assortment

3. Genotype is the composition of genes present in an organism and the characteristic which is visible in an organism is called its phenotype.

4. When two parents cross (or breed) to produce progeny (or offsprings), then their progeny is called F1-generation (First Filial Generation) and when the first generation progeny cross among themselves to prod or second Filial Generation.

♦ Mendel conducted his famous experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum).

♦ He used a number of contrasting characters like round / wrinkled seeds, tall/ short plants, white/ violet flowers and so on.

5. During Monohybrid Cross

♦ When tall pea plants are crossed with short pea plants then in Fi generation only tall plants were obtained.

♦ F2 progeny ofFi tall plants are not all tall but one quarter of them are short indicating that both tallness and shortness traits were inherited in F1 but only tallness trait was expressed due to dominance.

♦ In dihybrid cross two pairs of contrasting characters were considered. Tall plant with round seeds were crossed with short plant with wrinkled seeds. In Fi tall plants with round seeds were obtained. On selfing these F, plants with F2 produced tall plants with round seeds, short plant with wrinkled seeds and some new combinations (tall plant }
with wrinkled seeds and short plant with rounds seeds) were also obtained. The tall/short trait and round wrinkled traits are independently inherited.

♦ The expression of a particular trait is controlled by gene.

6. DNA is the source of making protein in a cell.

The section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called gene.

7. Physical and Chemical Basis of Heredity

Mendel (1866) said that heredity was controlled by particles, called germinal units, or factors.

8 Sex determination is the process by which the sex of a person is determined.

All human chromosomes are not paired. 22 pairs are called autosomes. Women have a perfect pair of sex chromosomes XX. But men have a mismatched pair XY.

9. Evolution
It is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive organisms over millions of years in which new species are produced

A. The evidences of evolution are :
i. Homologous organs,
ii. Analogous organs, and
Fossils

B. Theories of Evolution

Jean Baptiste Lamarck gave the first theory of evolution.

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) explained the evolutionary principle in his famous book “The origin of species”. The theory proposed by him is popularly known as theory of natural selection or Darwinsim.

The main features of the theory of natural selection are as follows:
(i) Over production
(ii) Limited food and space
(iii) Struggle for Existence
(iv) Variations
(v) Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest

10. Speciation : The process by which new species develop from the existing species is known as speciation.

The factors which leads to speciation are :
♦ Geographical isolation
♦ Genetic drift and
♦ Variations

11. Classification Evolutions are of three types :-
(i) Convergent Evolution
(ii) Divergent Evolution
(iii) Para

Electricity notes class10 by allen notes

Science Notes for Class 10
Chapter 12 Physcis Electricity pdf
1.   Positive and negative charges: The charge acquired by a glass rod when rubbed with silk is
called positive charge and the charge acquired by an ebonite rod when rubbed with wool is called negative charge.
2.   Coulomb: It is the S.I. unit of charge. One coulomb is defined as that amount of charge which repels an equal and similar charge with a force of 9 x 109 N when placed in vacuum at a distance of 1 meter from it.
Charge on an electron = -1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
3.   Static and current electricities: Static electricity deals with the electric charges at rest while the current electricity deals with the electric charges in motion.
4.   Conductor: A substance which allows passage of electric charges through it easily is called a
‗conductor‘. A conductor offers very low resistance to the flow of current. For example copper,silver, aluminium etc.
5.   Insulator: A substance that has infinitely high resistance does not allow electric current to flow through it. It is called an ‗insulator‘. For example rubber, glass, plastic, ebonite etc.
6.   Electric current: The flow of electric charges across a cross-section of a conductor constitutes an electric current. It is defined as the rate of flow of the electric charge through any section of a conductor.     Electric currentharge/Time or I = Q/t Electric current is a scalar quantity.
7.   Ampere: It is the S.I. unit of current. If one coulomb of charge flows through any section of a conductor in one second, then current through it is said to be one ampere.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/1 second    or      1 A = 1C/1s = 1Cs-1
1 milliampere =   1 mA = 10-3 A
1 microampere = 1µA = 10-6 A
8.   Electric circuit: The closed path along which electric current flows is called an ‗electric circuit‘.
9.   Conventional current: Conventionally, the direction of motion of positive charges is taken as the direction of current. The direction of conventional current is opposite to that of the negatively charged electrons.
10. Electric field: It is the region around a charged body within which its influence can be experienced.
11. Electrostatic potential: Electrostatic potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. Its unit is volt. Positive charges move from higher to lower potential regions. Electrons, being negatively charged, move from lower to higher potential regions.
12. Potential difference between two points: The Potential difference between two points in an electric field is the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one to another. Potential difference = Work done/Charge  or   V = W/Q
13. One volt potential difference: The Potential difference between two points in an electric field is said to one volt if one joule of work has to be done in bringing a positive charge of one coulomb from one point to another. 1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb  or  1 V = 1J/1C
14. Galvanometer: It is device to detect current in an electric circuit.
15. Ammeter: It is device to measure current in a circuit. It is always connected in series in a circuit.
16. Voltmeter: It is a device to measure potential difference. It is always connected in parallel to the component across which the potential difference is to be measured.
17. Ohm’s law: This law states that the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference cross its ends, provided the physical conditions like temperature, density etc. remains unchanged. V α I  or  V = RI
18. Resistance: It is a property of a conductor by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current through it. It is equal to the ratio of the potential difference applied across its ends and the current flowing through it. Resistance = Potential difference/Current or    R = V/I
19. Ohm: It is the S.I. unit of resistance. A conductor has a resistance of one ohm if a current of one ampere of current passing a conductr having apotential difference of one volt.

Electricity Important Question of class10

Questions from CBSE Board Paper 2014 for 2015

Q. A wire of resistivity  ρ  is stretched to double its length. How does it affect the (a) resistance (b) resistivity?
Solution:

(a) wire is stretched to double its length
So, New length of wire   l'= 2l
New Area of cross section or thickness  of wire   A'= A/2
New  resistance = r =( ρ x 2l) /(A/ 2)  = 4ρl/ A = 4 R
 Hence, new resistance = 4r
(b) the resistivity is a property of a material and thus is a constant.
So, in this case, by increasing the length of the wire we are not altering its resistivity. It will remain the same, ρ

Q. A wire of resistance 10 ohm is bent in the form of a closed circle. What is the effective resistance between the two points at the end of any diameter of the circle?

Solution:  A wire of resistance 10 ohm is bent in the form of a closed circle
So, R1 = R2 = 5 Ohm form a parallel loop
R' = (R1  R2)/(R1+ R2) = (5x5 )/(5+5) = 2.5 Ohm

Q. List two safety measures commonly used in electric circuits. Explain the main function of each. [CBSE 2014]

Ans: Two safety measures commonly used in electric circuits and appliances are
(i) Electric Fuse: An electric fuse is connected in series it protects the circuit from overloading and prevents it from short circuiting.

(ii) Proper earthing of all electric circuit in which any leakage of current in an electric appliance is transferred to the ground and people using the appliance do not get the shock.

Q. With the help of a circuit diagram prove that when a number of resistors are connected in  parallel the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of the combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances of the resistors.
Find the resistance between A and B in the following network [CBSE 2014]

Solution:   The resistance between a to and B to C = R1=  2 + 2 = 4 ohm
R2 = 4 Ohm
The resistance between A and B =R' = (R1  R2)/(R1+ R2)  = 4x4/(4+4) = 2 Ohm
Q. (a) How does the resistance of a wire change when
(i) its length is tripled ?
(ii) its radius is tripled ?
(iii) its material is changed to one whose resistivity is three times ?
(b) List two reasons why nichrome is used for making heating element of electrical appliances. [CBSE 2014]

Solution: (a)
(i) We know that resistance of wire is directly proportional to length of wire
So,if  its length is tripled the resistance increases 3 times

(ii) We know that resistance of wire is inversely proportional to area of cross section of wire
New radius = 3r  so,New area increases 9 times
Thus the resistance of a wire decreases 9 times
(ii) R = Pl/A
new resistivity p'   = 3p
New Resistance R' = 3Pl/A = 3R
Thus, the resistance of wire increases 3 times

(b) Nichrome is used for making heating element of electrical appliances because:
(i) Nichrome does not oxidize, i. e. burn easily at high temperatures as it has higher melting and boiling point than metals.
(ii) Nichrome has higher resisistivity and consequently a higher resistance. Therefore, it will resist the flow of charges more, and lead to development of heat faster

Q. Mention one reason why tungsten is used for making filament of electric lamp. [CBSE 2014]
Ans: tungsten does not oxidize, i. e. burn easily at high temperatures as it has higher melting and boiling point than metals

Q. List two characteristics of the material to be used in fuse wire. Name the material it is made of. A fuse is always connected in series in an electric circuit ? Justify this statement giving reason [CBSE 2014]
Answer:
two characteristics of the material to be used in fuse wire
(a) Low melting and boiling point (b) high electric resistance

Fuse is generally made up of  an alloy of tin and lead

In series connection the current for the entire house pass through the fuse. So, when fuse melts , it breaks down the entire home circuit and no current flows to the household circuitry. Thus, a fuse is always connected in series

Q. A circuit has a line of 5 A. How many lamps of rating 40 W; 220 V can si

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